Water Soluble Vitamins for Poultry

Water Soluble Vitamins for PoultryThe vitamins argon a very grand class of the nutrients. They influence various important roles in the lifetime cycle of any living-being. The absence or insufficiency of the vitamins in poultry causes serious problems. The pee meltable vitamins atomic number 18 very important sub-class of vitamins. In the poultry which stinker not synthesize these vitamins in their proboscis these should be provided in the diets means these are dietary all-important(a). The inclusion of the body of water system disintegrable vitamins accurately, according to the inescapably of birds, production stage, physiological state of the birds and environmental conditions is very necessary to avoid the problems and to gain maximum performance because these vitamins are necessitate by the birds in umteen systems including energy metamorphosis, growth, straight-laced logical argument flow, development of skeleton, compensation of the stress, egg production, fertility, anti- oxidisers for semen and proper development and viability of the growing embryos. It means these are not only important for current birds but as well as their provision in an accurate way will ensure the next generation of the birds.Key words roles, water soluble vitamins, poultry.IntroductionThe term vitamin was first used in 1912. Vitamins are a assemblage of complex organic compounds which are present in minute amounts in natural turn tailstuffs. These are necessary for normal metamorphosis and the deprivation of these compounds in the feed causes deficiency diseases. The vitamins are divided into two groups depending upon their solubility i.e.Fat soluble vitamins which include Vitamin A, D, E and K.Water soluble vitamins which are Vitamin B-complex and vitamin C.The names, synonyms and the two classes i.e. fat and water soluble can be summarized asVitamin namesSynonymsFat solubleVitamin A1Retinol, retinal, retinoic venereal infectionVitamin A2Dehydroretin olVitamin D2ErgocalciferolVitamin D3CholecalciferolVitamin ETocopherol, tocotrienolsVitamin K1PhylloquinoneVitamin K2MenaquinoneVitamin K3MenadioneWater solubleThiaminVitamin B1RiboflavinVitamin B2NiacinVitamin PP, Vitamin B3Vitamin B6Pyridoxol, pyridoxal, pyridoxaminePantothenic acidVitamin B5BiotinVitamin H, vitamin B8Folic acidFolacin, folate, Vitamin M, Vitamin Bc, Vitamin B9Vitamin B12 vitamin B12CholineGossypineVitamin CAscorbic acid(Adopted from McDowell, 2004)Poultry and other monogastric animals are dependent on dietary sources of vitamins to a much greater degree than are ruminants. It is considered that animals with in full functional rumen can not suffer from a deficiency of vitamin B-complex. Vitamin B12 is unique in that it occurs in plant tissues as a result of microbial synthesis (McDowell, 2004). Thiamin (B1) is required to control impulse and reduces death rate, Riboflavin (B2) is responsible to control curly-toe paralysis, proper growth and proper egg producti on, Pantothenic acid(B5) is necessary for supreme dermatitis and improper lesions on the m appearh and feet, Niacin (B3) is compound in proper confirmation of legs, tongue and mouth cavity, Choline ensures proper growth and proper egg production, Vitamin B12 is required to control anemia and to control early embryonic death, Folic acid (B9) is required for proper growth, imperious of anemia, proper feathering and proper egg production, Biotin (B8) is required to control dermatitis o feet, around eyes and cull and Ascorbic acid(vitamin C) is required to normal growth and development, growth and repair of tissues, formation of collagen, cartilage, bones, avoid stresses and wound healing (Unknown, 2002). Vitamin C (vit C) is a water soluble anti oxidiser put in cytosol and extracellular fluids and it can directly scavenge super oxide hydroxyl radicals and single oxygen species (Clarkson and Thompson, 2000). It is thought to employ its effects on the immune system through the enha ncement of neutrophil production and through protection of the cell against super oxide radical damage (Bendich et al., 1986). down the stairs normal conditions birds can synthesize sufficient amounts of vit C (Roy and Guha, 1958), however in the stress conditions birds whitethorn require an external source of vit C (Meade S.M. 2004) to provide non-specific down the stairsground against infections and overcome stress and therefore improving productivity (Pardue and Thaxton, 1985). The phagocyte activity is enhanced in the presence of vit C. There is a higher(prenominal) quantity of the superoxides found in the phagocytes when sufficient amounts of vit C are found and further increase in the level of vit C further increases the amount of free radicals in phagocytes (Scarpa et al., 1983 Som et al., 1983). viral infections have been shown to cause a depletion of leukocyte ascorbate, which resulted in varying degrees of non-specific immunosuppression and a reduction in serum vit C tig htness (Thomas and Holt, 1978 Bendich et al., 1986).The role of vit C in controlling of stress has been documented many a times. There was a proof that by providing external vit C source at a rate of 330ppm the blood levels of vit C are elevated (Nestor et al., 1972). Another get word showed that a 1000ppm adding of vit C reduces exogenous cortisol related immunosuppression. Some studies have to a fault continueed that vit C decreases heat shock protein 70 and germ plasm corticosterone response in chicken subjected to cyclic heat stress (Mahmoud et al., 2003, 2004). Vitamin C supplementation in feed or water can also reduce the sensation of fear in the birds (Jones, R. B., 1996). Pardue and Thaxton (1986) documented the effects of supplementation with vit C on a number of characteristics including growth, procreative performance, immunosuppression and mortality. It was also documented by Satterlee et al., 1989 Kutlu and Forbes, 1993a McKee and Harrison, 1995)Poultry under intensi ve production systems are particularly susceptible to vit deficiencies so to avoid this poultry feeds are supplemented commonly with B2, niacin, pantothenic acid, B12 and choline out of water soluble vitamins (Scott et tout ensemble. 1982). It is to be noted that Thiamin, vitamin B6, biotin and folacin are mostly present in adequate quantities in the major ingredients much(prenominal) as corn-soybean meal-based diets and poultry can normally produce a sufficient amount of ascorbic acid by its own (McDowell, L. R. 2004). Vitamin needs of new strains developed for improve production are higher. Leg problems seen in fast growing strains of broilers can be corrected in part by higher levels of biotin, folacin, niacin and choline (Roche 1979). emphasise and disease conditions in animals may increase the basic requirement for certain vitamins. Nutrient levels that are adequate for growth, feed efficiency, gestation and lactation may not be adequate for normal immunity and for maximiz ing the animals resistance to disease (Cunha 1985 Nockels et al. 1996). Diseases and microorganisms proceeding the gastro intestinal tract reduce the absorption as well as the production of vitamins also the conditions affecting the G.I.T. cause a reduction in vitamin production and absorption i.e. diarrhea and vomiting (McDowell, L.R., 2004). Mycotoxins and internal bleeding in poultry also causes a reduced efficiency of vitamins (McDowell, L.R., 2004). Vitamin antagonists (antimetabolites) interfere with the activity of various vitamins (Oldsfield, 1987). Under commercial production a higher level of the vitamins is helpful for optimal production and performance this also helps in achieving best growth rates, feed utilization and health and in part also helps to increase body reserves (Coelho, 1996). The ascorbic acid acts as an antioxidant for the avian spermatozoanatozoa (Surai et all, 2001). Ascorbic acid supplementation enhances the ejaculation qualities of male fowl (Surai et all, 2001). In the hot and dry season offering the cold water supplemented with ascorbic acid increases incubus gain and spleen but it will also cause a reduced size of wings (Abioja, et all, 2011).Classes of B-ComplexBased on the functions the B-complex can be categorized into 3 classes, however some of the members fall into more(prenominal) than one classEnergy releasing antiberiberi factor (B1), Riboflavin (B2), Niacin (B3), Pantothenic acid (B5), Piroxidine (B6), and Biotin.Hematopoietic Folic acid (B9), Cyanocobalamin (B12), Pantothenic acid (B5), and Piroxidine (B6).Other Thiamine (B1), Niacin (B3), Piroxidine (B6), Folic acid (B9), and Cyanocobalamin (B12). (Wilson, G. V.)Vitamin B-complex deficienciesDeficiency arises due to inadequate supplies of the vitamins and the signs develop over a time period. So if the vitamin levels provided are lower than the required levels then the classical deficiency signs will be seen in the birds. Generally the young and growing chi cks are more prone to vitamin deficiencies and the developing embryo is the best model showing deficiencies of vitamins. Problems due to the B-complex deficiency arise quite abruptly and often seen in 5-7 age because there is a little storage of these in the body (Leeson, S. and J. D. Summers, 2001).In the researches carried out on poultry of different age groups it was shown that a deficiency in the handiness of Thiamine (B1) caused a loss of appetite and increased death ratios (Poultry health Services, 2009). Leeson, S. and J. D. Summers, 2001 stated that polyneuritis in the birds shows the later stages of thiamine deficiency which may arise due to the build up of the intermediates of carbohydrate metabolism. In mature birds it is seen approximately 3 weeks after they are being fed a thiamine deficient feed. Poultry may also suffer from neuromuscular problems, resulting in impaired digestion, general weakness, star gazing and frequent convulsions (Leeson, S. and J. D. Summers, 2001).A deficiency in the availability of Riboflavin (B2) caused increased occurrence in the curly toe paralysis, poor growth and poor egg production (Poultry Health Services, 2009). Many tissues especially epithelial tissue and myelin sheath are affected due to victuals of a feed which is d4eficient in ovoflavin and on postmortem the characteristic sign of riboflavin deficiency is marked enlargement of the sciatic and brachial nerve sheath with the sciatic nerve showing the most pronounced effects (Leeson, S. and J. D. Summers, 2001).A feeding programme with a deficient amount of Pantothenic acid (B5) is evident as occurrence of dermatitis and lesions on mouth and feet (Poultry Health Services, 2009). According to Leeson, S. and J. D. Summers, 2001 the major lesions due to deficiency of pantothenic acid involve nervous system, the adrenal cortex and the skin.Niacin (B3) deficiency is shown by bowed legs and inflammation of tongue and mouth cavity (Poultry Health Services, 2009). Leeson, S. and J. D. Summers, 2001 report that niacin deficiency is characterized by severe metabolic disorders of skin and digestive organs, signs being the loss of appetite, retarded growth, general weakness and diarrhea in the birds.A feeding programme having deficiency of pyridoxine (B6) is characterized by retarded growth, dermatitis, convulsions, anemia and there may also be reduced nitrogen retention (Leeson, S. and J. D. Summers, 2001).Choline deficiency is evident from poor growth, superfatted liver, decreased egg production (Poultry Health Services, 2009). Leeson, S. and J. D. Summers, 2001 report the deficiency of choline in growing chicks is evident from poor growth and perosis.Cobalamin (B12) deficiency is shown by cases of anemia, poor growth, embryonic mortality (Poultry Health Services, 2009). According to Leeson, S. and J. D. Summers, 2001 a deficiency of B12 in growing chicks showed decreased weight unit gain, decreased feed intake, poor feathering and poor nerv ous system.Folic acid (B9) deficiency is evident from poor growth, anaemia, poor feathering and poor egg production (Poultry Health Services, 2009). A deficiency of folic acid in the experimental birds caused macrocytic (megaloblastic) anemia and leukopenia i.e. reduced white blood cells (Leeson, S. and J. D. Summers, 2001).Biotin (B8) deficiency increases the dermatitis on feet and skin around eyes and beak (Unknown, 2004 Poultry Health Services, 2009 Roche 1979 Leeson, S. and J. D. Summers, 2001).The diseases and problem seen due to deficiencies of the water soluble vitamins in poultry can be summarized in the following tableDeficient vitamin Thiamine (B1) unequivocal deficiency signsloss of appetiteincreased death ratiospolyneuritisimpaired digestiongeneral weaknessstar gazingfrequent convulsionsDeficient vitaminRiboflavin (B2)Evident deficiency signscurly toe paralysispoor growthpoor egg productionaffected epithelium and myelin sheathDeficient vitaminPantothenic acid (B5)Evident deficiency signsdermatitislesions on mouth and feetDeficient vitaminNiacin (B3)Evident deficiency signsbowed legsinflammation of tongue and mouth cavityLoss of appetiteretarded growthgeneral weaknessdiarrheaDeficient vitaminpyridoxine (B6)Evident deficiency signsretarded growthdermatitisconvulsionsanemiaCholinepoor growthfatty liverdecreased egg productionperosisDeficient vitaminCobalamin (B12)Evident deficiency signsanaemiapoor growthembryonic mortalityDecreased weight gaindecreased feed intakepoor featheringPoor nervous system.Deficient vitaminFolic acid (B9)Evident deficiency signspoor growthanaemiapoor featheringpoor egg productionleukopeniaDeficient vitaminBiotin (B8)Evident deficiency signsdermatitis on feet and skin around eyes and beak(Poultry Health Services, 2009 Roche 1979 Leeson, S. and J. D. Summers, 2001) post of water soluble vitamins as Co-enzymesRiboflavin or vitamin B2 is a prosthetic part of over a dozen enzymes in the animal body including cytochromes reductase, lipoamide dehydrogenase, xanthine oxidase, L- and d- aminic acid oxidase, histaminase and others all of which are vital for oxidation-reduction reactions involved in cell respiration (Leeson, S. and J. D. Summers, 2001).Niacin or nicotinic acid is important in more than 100 different enzymatic reactions (Rasmusson R.) It is the vitamin component in two important enzymes i.e. nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD) and nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADP) account by Leeson, S. and J. D. Summers, 2001.Pantothenic acid (B5) is the prosthetic group of coenzyme A, an important coenzyme involved in many reversible acetylation reactions in carbohydrate, fat and amino acid metabolism (Leeson, S. and J. D. Summers, 2001).Biotin (B8) is an meaty co-enzyme in carbohydrate, fat and protein metabolism (Leeson, S. and J. D. Summers, 2001).Vitamin B12 is an essential part of several enzyme systems, with most reactions involving the synthesis of one carbon units i.e. methyl groups (Leeson, S. and J. D. Summers, 2001).Role of Ascorbic acid (vitamin C) in birds under stressful conditionsThe efficacy of supplementing birds with vitamin C under stressful conditions depends upon its ability to elevate plasma vitamin C (Pardue et al., 1984). Nestor et al., (1972) reported that 330ppm vitamin C elevated blood vitamin C. Pardue et al., (1984) reported that vitamin C supplementation at a rate of 250ppm increased plasma vitamin C concentrations in broilers. But Sell et all in 1997 found that 300 mg/kg vitamin C was unable to increase plasma vitamin C levels. Kolb (1984) strongly suggested that supplemental vitamin C should be provided in poultry and livestock diets as a stress alleviator. hammock and Garren (1958) agreed and stated that vitamin C was an essential nutrient in chickens experiencing stress. Vitamin C supplementation at 300 mg/kg was able to decrease plasma corticosterone in stressed birds. These responses are supported by research suggesting that vitami n C suppresses adrenocortical steroid hormoneogenesis and depresses plasma corticosterone levels, therefore limiting some of the deleterious responses associated with stress and delays the depletion of steroid hormone precursors (Pardue et al., 1985 Gross, 1992 Kutlu and Forbes, 1993). The action of vitamin C on adrenal steroidogenesis is associated with its ability to inhibit adrenal steroid hydroxylating enzymes (Kitabchi, 1967). Supplementation with 300 mg/kg of ascorbic acid resulted in a significant increase in plasma vitamin C throughout the experiment when compared to the Un-Supplemented birds (Meade, S.M., 2004). There is limited research examining the effects of vitamin C on lymph cell subset populations in chickens. However, those experiments that have been demonstrated the effects of vitamin C on lymphocyte populations in association with disease or vaccination (Wu et al., 2000). The effect of dietary vitamin C supplementation is still controversial however vitamin C sup plementation at 300 mg/kg alleviated stress-induced affects (Meade, S.M., 2004). These physiological and immunological findings suggest that vitamin C may be an anti-stress agent and may be an essential nutrient in poultry when poults are subjected to stressful conditions (Meade, S.M., 2004).Ascorbic acid as an anti oxidant for avian spermatozoaAscorbic acid or vitamin c is water soluble anti oxidant present at high molar concentrations in spermatozoa and seminal plasma in a large number of animals. In poultry its concentration in semen averages 210 +-16.4microM (Surai et all 1986b). On a molar basis this concentration was more than 2.5 times higher than glutathione and more than 100 fold higher than alpha-tocopherol. Ascorbic acid was found almost equally distributed between spermatozoa and seminal plasma (Surai et all 1986b). This data was very useful in the development of an idea that vit. C plays an important role as a water soluble anti oxidant in the avian seminal plasma (Sura i et all, 2001).Ascorbic acid effect on ejaculation quality of male FowlMonsi and Onitchi in 1991 reported that fowl males housed under hot and humid conditions and supplemented with ascorbic acid showed a better overall ejaculation quality i.e. semen volume, motile sperm proportion and sperm number per ejaculate. The reported ascorbic acid supplementation level was 500mg/kg. However sperm motility was not affected. Dietary supplementations of ascorbic acid had the effects on semen of rainbow trout reflected by increased sperm motility and decreased decline in fertilizing capacity of spermatozoa after storage (Ciereszko and Dabrowski, 2000). A protective role of ascorbic acid in maintaining the sperm quality was also reported by Ciereszko and Dabrowski in 1996. However the low dietary levels of vitamin E and C (ascorbic acid) had no effects on the spermatozoa in mice rather the increased and higher supplementary levels decreased the number of spermatozoa/mg epididymis and increased the percentage of spermatozoa with misshapen heads (Ten et all, 1997).Role of ascorbic acid in weight gainA study was carried out in SW Nigeria on a group of broiler chicken. The birds were divided into four groups after the age of three weeks. A group was disposed(p) cold water without any ascorbic acid and other group was given cold water with supplementation of ascorbic acid. Similarly two groups were made for normal unchilled water with and without ascorbic acid provision. The results of study showed a marked superior growth of breast meat and spleen in the group provided with cold water and ascorbic acid. However there was no affect of ascorbic acid supplementation on the growth parameters of the birds in any of the four groups. In addition there was a decreased wing length seen in these birds. The reason for this phenomenon to happen is that in hot climatic conditions a lot of the energy is wasted in panting and when cold water is provided the birds feel sympathiser and ther e is less panting seen. Also in stress corticosteroids are released which further decrease the weight gain. By providing cold water these both conditions are avoided so better results are obtained. The cold water resulted in an overall more weight gain weekly and finally more live weight however decreased wing length, the vitamin c had no effect on the growth however it increased the breast meat and the spleen in birds, (Abioja, et all, 2011).Role of water soluble vitamins in Energy metabolismThe transformation of dietary energy sources, such as carbohydrates, fats and proteins into cellular energy in the form of adenosine triphosphate requires several micronutrients as coenzymes and cofactors of enzymatic reactions, as structural components of enzymes and mitochondrial cytochromes, and as active electron and proton carriers in the ATP-generating respiratory chain(Groff et all, 1996, Depeint et all, 2006) (i) thiamine pyrophosphate (TPP vitamin B1), CoA (containing pantothenic acid) , flavin mononucleotide (FMN derived from vitamin B2), flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD derived from vitamin B2) and nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD derived from nicotinamide) are involved in the Krebs cycle and complexes I and II of the respiratory chain (ii) biotin, CoA and FAD are involved in haem biosynthesis, which is an essential part of the cytochromes and important for the last mentioned part of the mitochondrial respiratory chain (iii) succinyl-CoA can feed into either the respiratory chain or the Krebs cycle depending on the needs of the cell.Depeint et all, in 2006 confirmed the essential role of vitamins B6, B12 and folate in maintaining the mitochondrial one-carbon transfer cycles by regulating mitochondrial enzymes. The same authors also emphasized the essential role of the B vitamin family in maintaining mitochondrial energy metabolism and how mitochondria in their role as the cellular organelles responsible for energy metabolism are compromised by a deficienc y of any B vitamin (Depeint et all, 2006).Table given here summarizes the present state of knowledge with regard to the role or roles of individual water soluble vitamins in energy metabolism (adopted from Institute of medicine, 1998).Vitamins engage in energy metabolismThiamine (B1)Essential cofactor in the conversion of carbohydrates to energy.Needed for normal muscle function, including the heart muscle.Involved in oxidative carboxylation reactions, which also require manganese ions.Riboflavin (B2)As a cofactor in the mitochondrial respiratory chain, helps in the release of energy from foods.Component of the main coenzymes FAD and FMN.Nicotinic acid, niacin (B3)As a cofactor in the mitochondrial respiratory chain, helps in the release of energy from foods.Transformed into NAD and NADP, which play a key role in oxidation -reduction reactions in all cells.Pyridoxine (B6)Helps in the release of energy from foods.Used as a cofactor by nearly 100 enzymatic reactions, mainly in protein and amino acid metabolism.Vitamin B12Essential for metabolism of fats and carbohydrates and the synthesis of proteins.Interacts with folic acid metabolism.BiotinAs a cofactor, involved in metabolism of fatty acids, amino acids and utilization of B vitamins.Pantothenic acidPlays an essential role in the Krebs cycle.Component of coenzyme A.Vitamin CEssential for synthesis of carnitine (transports long-chain fatty acids into(Ascorbic acid) mitochondria) and the catecholamines, adrenaline and noradrenaline.Ascorbic acid facilitates transport and uptake of non-haem iron at the mucosa, the reduction of folic acid intermediates, and the synthesis of cortisol.Potent antioxidant.Folic acidFolates function as a family of cofactors that carry one-carbon (C1) units required for the synthesis of thymidylate, purines and methionine, and required for other methylation reactions.Folate is essential for metabolic pathways involving cell growth, replication and survival of cells in culture.Around 30 50% of cellular folates are located in the mitochondria.Toxicity arising due to water soluble vitaminsToxicities arise due to over supplementation levels or more inclusion rates of the nutrients. Generally the toxicity of the water soluble vitamins is not seen in the birds because of the reason that these vitamins have a very minimal storage in the body. If the inclusion rate of vitamin B-complex is at least 100x than the required level, it tends to cause toxicity in the poultry. Vitamin C, E and Biotin are moderately toxic, potentially causing problems at 20-30x the normal inclusion levels. Toxicity of vitamins administered in the drinking water is quite grand because the birds are reluctant to drink such fortified water (Leeson, S. and J. D. Summers, 2001).ConclusionFrom above discussion it can be concluded that the water soluble vitamins play many important roles in the poultry life including proper growth, production, weight gain, egg production, immunity, proper conformity, proper functioning, avoiding of stress due to many origins, proper feathering, proper skin condition and proper embryo development.The water soluble vitamins are required in the metabolism, in the oxidation and reduction reactions as coenzymes which mean these are vital for the survival of the animals.These also enhance the quality of the ejaculation in male fowl as well a act as antioxidants for the avian spermatozoa ensuring the fertility and avoiding deformities in the semen of poultry. The water soluble vitamin family member, ascorbic acid is also involved in extra gain of the breast meat which is most wish part of chicken meat in general.